Samhain: The Ancient Pagan Festival That Came Before Halloween

Every autumn, people across the world dress in costumes, carve pumpkins, and hand out candy in celebration of Halloween. But few realize that many of these traditions trace their roots back more than two thousand years to Samhain, a Celtic pagan festival that marked the turning of the seasons, the thinning of the veil between worlds, and the start of the new year.

The Meaning of Samhain

Samhain (pronounced SOW-in) translates from modern Irish as “summer’s end.” For the Celts of the Iron Age, who lived across Ireland, Scotland, and parts of northern Europe, it was a pivotal time of transition. The festival began at sunset on October 31 and stretched into the first days of November, ushering in the Celtic new year.

Unlike today’s calendar, which divides the year into four seasons, the Celtic year was split into two halves: light and dark. Samhain marked the start of the dark half of the year, a season of long nights, harsh weather, and uncertainty. For agricultural communities, it was the end of the harvest and the moment to take stock, prepare for winter, and face the inevitability of death and rebirth.

According to historian Nicholas Rogers, author of Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night, Samhain was a time of “stock-taking and perhaps sacrifice,” with communities likely offering animals and crops to secure protection through the coming months.

Fire Festivals and the Wheel of the Year

The Celts marked their calendar with four major fire festivals: Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh, and Samhain. These festivals divided the year into its light and dark halves, with Samhain positioned between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. Bonfires were central to these observances, symbolizing both warmth against the cold and spiritual protection.

The fires of Samhain were more than practical sources of heat. They were thought to protect against spirits and fairies that roamed freely when the boundary between the worlds of the living and dead grew thin. People would light huge communal bonfires, burn offerings of crops or livestock, and sometimes carry the embers home to relight their hearths for the new year.

Spirits, Fairies, and the Otherworld

One of the most enduring aspects of Samhain was the belief that the veil between worlds was thinnest at this time. Encyclopedia Britannica notes that the festival was when the world of the gods “was believed to be made visible to humankind.” The souls of the dead might return to visit their families, while mischievous spirits and fairies could cause trouble.

To protect themselves, people left food and drink offerings outside their homes, hoping to appease visiting spirits. Tricks and pranks were also common during this time, often blamed on otherworldly beings rather than on human mischief.

The idea of spirits roaming freely also gave rise to the practice of costuming. Participants sometimes dressed as animals or monstrous beings, hoping to disguise themselves from malevolent spirits or confuse those who might wish them harm. These disguises foreshadow the costumes we know today.

Divination and Looking to the Future

Because Samhain marked the Celtic new year, it was not only a time for remembering the dead but also for looking ahead. Druids, the Celtic priestly class, believed that the heightened presence of otherworldly forces made this the perfect time for divination and fortune-telling.

According to History.com, rituals around the bonfires often included predicting the future, particularly concerning marriage, health, and death. Many of these folk practices lingered for centuries in rural communities, evolving into games and traditions associated with Halloween.

Christianity and the Transformation of Samhain

As the Roman Empire spread into Celtic lands, and later as Christianity gained ground, Samhain underwent profound changes. Many pagan customs were reframed under a Christian lens to ease the transition to the new religion.

In 609 AD, Pope Boniface IV established All Saints’ Day on May 13 to honor Christian martyrs. By the mid-eighth century, Pope Gregory III moved the observance to November 1, deliberately aligning it with Samhain. The evening before became known as All Hallows’ Eve, which eventually shortened to Halloween.

Christianity retained many outward features of Samhain. Bonfires were still lit, costumes were worn, and offerings were made. But instead of appeasing restless spirits, these acts were reframed as honoring saints and helping souls in purgatory. The Celtic tradition of leaving food for spirits gradually evolved into the Christian custom of soul cakes, which were given to the poor in exchange for prayers.

From Samhain to Halloween

Over the centuries, as Christianity spread and secular culture evolved, the festival transformed further. By the time Halloween reached North America with Irish immigrants in the 19th century, many of its traditions had taken on a more playful and community-oriented tone. Costumes became lighter in spirit, bonfires gave way to jack-o’-lanterns, and the practice of offerings transformed into trick-or-treating.

Today, Halloween is celebrated by millions around the world, often with little thought to its deeper roots. Yet, whether or not modern revelers recognize it, many of the practices they take part in—dressing up, playing pranks, and honoring the supernatural—echo back to the ancient festival of Samhain.

The Legacy of Samhain

Samhain reminds us of humanity’s timeless relationship with the cycles of nature. For the Celts, it was a time to honor the dead, prepare for the hardships of winter, and embrace the mystery of life and death. For modern pagans and practitioners of Wicca, Samhain is still celebrated as one of the eight Sabbats of the Wheel of the Year, often with rituals that honor ancestors and reflect on the balance of darkness and light.

In many ways, Halloween continues to serve the same role as Samhain: a recognition of transition, a brush with the mysterious, and a community celebration marking the end of harvest and the beginning of winter.

While Halloween today may be dominated by costumes, candy, and haunted houses, its soul still carries traces of an ancient Celtic fire festival. Samhain was not just a party but a profound ritual marking death, rebirth, and survival. As we carve pumpkins and light candles in the dark of October, we echo the Celts who gathered around their bonfires centuries ago, keeping fear at bay and honoring the mysteries of life beyond the veil.

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